Miamisburg Mound [1]
“History is a pack of tricks we play on the dead” Voltaire 1694–1778 [2]
"My people, the time for our departure is at hand. A few words remain only to be said. Our entire Nation is gathered here for farewell. We have this morning, met together for the last time...
...It remains only for me to say farewell... Here our dead are buried. We have placed fresh flowers upon their graves for the last time. No longer shall we visit them. Soon, they shall be forgotten, for the onward march of the strong White Man will not turn aside for the Indian graves..." Chief Squire Grey Eyes, June 12, 1843. [3]
I grew up in Ohio. The first Native Americans I saw were in Arizona when I went west with my parents in 1958. Ohio has no reservations. I was taught in school that native tribes no longer existed here. Native children were being put into boarding schools, their hair shorn, their language banned; they were being turned into "US Citizens." There are the names; Chillicothe, Scioto, Muskingum, and Cuyahoga; "Ohio" itself. Portage County, Circleville, and many towns have Mound Streets even though they no longer have mounds. I have a collection of arrowheads that my grandfather found in a field north of Columbus.
Native Americans had disappeared after the long genocide starting from the first European contact. This contact took many forms. Natives were much more susceptible to the diseases of Europeans because of the isolation of the Western hemisphere and because there were no cattle or horses, mammals whose diseases Europeans carried. Epidemics swept through the Caribbean soon after Columbus' arrival and preceded the conquests of the Aztecs in Mexico and the Inca in Peru. [4] The conquistador Hernando De Soto led the first European expedition up the Mississippi River. He died somewhere in eastern Arkansas in 1542 and journals from him and survivors tell of encountering many diverse peoples and large towns belonging to mound-builder cultures we now call Mississippian. [5] In 1685 the French established the first European colony in Arkansas and the French reported far fewer native settlements. In the Ohio Valley, little is known because of later European contact. Archeology in Iroquois villages in western New York shows no evidence of population loss during the 1500s until a confirmed epidemic in 1638. [6] By the 1700s, European settlers had a vaccine for smallpox, it was only 26% effective but it gave Europeans another edge in their expansion. No one knows the population of different regions of the hemisphere at the time of contact but the lowest estimates have been rising. The latest estimates for 1500 show just short of 2 million people in North America, by 1900 a quarter of that, and today the population is back to around 2 million. [7] Whether the estimate that Ohio lost 70% to 90% of its population to plague during the 1500s is true or not, colonial expansion was a continuous source of native trauma.
Native peoples in Ohio had all been forcibly expelled by 1850. But what of the evidence of an older civilization? Burial mounds and earthworks, over six hundred earthworks and maybe 10 times as many mounds in Ohio alone, half still visible today. Beautiful pipes and carvings, materials gathered from the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, from Lake Superior, Yellowstone, Kansas, and the Great Smokey Mts, evidence of extensive travel and communication over vast distances. White settlers couldn't fathom this lost civilization, Vikings maybe? But now the heritage is evident, these were ancestors of native peoples still alive and thriving today. The "American Indian" did not disappear. Their stories, beliefs, and their culture survive and their concerns, participation, and caring are important elements in anthropology today. It may seem strange that the idea of anthropologists listening to current tribal beliefs is new, the so-called new animism [8], but any science is a human historical endeavor, full of past prejudices that may take years to change.
There is a legitimate critique of getting knowledge of the past from ethnography. Just how far back can one go? How much is the past a foreign country even to those whose ancestors lived it? [9] One problem is that it is hard for a society that has had writing for so long to understand how knowledge is passed through memory. it has been assumed that memorized stories can only remain coherent for about one hundred years. Any trial lawyer will tell you how unreliable memory is, yet cultures thrived without written words. A study of Australian Aboriginal stories has shown that some stories go back from seven to thirteen thousand years based on descriptions of coastlines that only existed then. [10] Most of us are familiar with the Telphone Game, where one passes a story from person to person. A study of the changes in information content has shown that although the details are garbled, the information content of the story is little changed [11]
Hopewell Culture [12]
Researchers have characterized three periods of mound-building culture in the Ohio Valley, Adena, Hopewell, and Fort Ancient. The first two names are those of closely located farms near Chillicothe and the third is rather silly, the place is a ceremonial landscape, not a fort. In fact the "Fort Ancient Culture" didn't construct the earthworks they were named after, they only established villages on the grounds and perhaps maintained them. [13] Some now consider the Adena and Hopewell to be a continuum rather than two separate cultures but they all were mound builders although the Hopewell built the earthworks. The later Fort Ancient culture brought the extensive cultivation of corn and the agricultural practice of the "three sisters," the co-planting of corn, beans, and squash. [14] Corn and squash were already known in the region, but the multi-crop planting method added to an already burgeoning semi-nomadic agriculture. [15]
Major cultures in Eastern North America [16]
As seen in the timeline above, Mound Builder cultures went through a series of fluorescences going back almost 6,000 years and culminating in the great city of Cahokia. As I have mentioned before, there is evidence of extant mound-building tribes on the lower Mississippi, now called the Natchez People, at the time of first European contact. [17]
Mississippian cultures including Fort Ancient [18]
I will talk mainly about the Hopewell culture as it provided a simultaneous answer to many human mysteries: What is time? What is the Universe? What is death? How are these connected by the cognitive process that is called Mathematics? These questions are not unique to this region, and evidence of this appears all over and goes back deep into the modern human and even hominid past. The Hopewell were not unique but of course, their story is.
How an animal recognizes that a conspecific is dead is still a mystery. When insects die their cuticle releases specific compounds and with other creatures, there is a slower process of decay. Social insects must remove bodies quickly to prevent disease and it is a specialized behavior. Ants tend to pile their dead but simple rules can model this and reports of ants creating chambers specifically for their dead may be an artifact of laboratory captivity. [19] All creatures with large brain-to-body-mass ratios have reported human-like reactions to death that go back millennia. Look up crow funerals. [20] Apes release stress hormones much like humans do when they are grieving. [21] Three other hominid groups have shown evidence that they intern their dead [22] Homo Sapiens actively process their dead and this is an essential element of how a culture works and what it believes to be true.
The Hopewell culture culminates in a history that goes back thousands of years. Earlier societies were organized by seasonal camps which had one of two purposes, processing food or processing the dead. This processing of the dead included both cremation and burial. [23] Earthworks were built in the southern US going back five thousand years. The practice of covering graves with mounds also goes back maybe three thousand years; the Adena culture created log graves and built mounds over them, and the Hopewell built charnel houses where bodies were both burnt and buried and then the houses were burnt down and covered by mounds.
These mounds became centers around transitional agriculture based on small plots maintained by one or more houses of extended families. They cultivated:
a gourd or squash (Cucurbita pepo ssp. ovifera)
sunflower (Helianthus annuus)
sumpweed (Iva annua) [24]
chenopod (Chenopodium berlandieri) [25]
erect knotweed (Polygonum erectum) [26]
maygrass (Phalaris caroliniana) [27]
little barley (Hordeum pussilum) [28]
It is believed that these plots were first cleared and then later abandoned after they stopped producing. This method has been termed "gardening," kind of a diminutive of "true agriculture." The reality is that Ohio, like many regions of the world, spontaneously developed agriculture, although without the city-state political hierarchy assumed necessary by many anthropologists. [29]
Hopewell archeology (and archeology in general) is a hodge-podge of old records from professional and amateur archeologists about sites that today have been destroyed and who used research methods that are questionable by today's standards, artifacts scattered in museums and private collections, often with no records of original placement or provenance, plus only scattered legal protection, the property owner mostly has the final say. There has also been an ever-expanding set of new technologies and methods that have revolutionized the field every generation. Each site that has been explored has a deep connection between humans and the landscape that tells a story, a narrative, that goes from the now back to the first associations of humans with this landscape. For Hopewell culture, it is about river valleys and surrounding hills and their impacts on this landscape during a certain time period. There is an attempt to look at this in terms of larger and larger units. The Scioto Hopewell includes four river valleys in Ohio and river valleys in Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The Hopewell Interaction Sphere includes maybe sixteen other clumps of sites that are deemed Hopewell cultures. This is a process by archeologists to coarse-grain the already spotty data from many individual sites. This fuels the competing narratives that drive science.
Christopher Carr is an Anthropological Archeologist and Scholar now at Arizona State University. [30] He has spent a lifetime systematizing and compiling the fragmented archeological data and the scattered artifacts of the Ohio Hopewell, specifically the Scioto Hopewell in the region around present-day Chillicothe, Ohio. He has studied Shamanistic religions and the ethnographic stories of surviving indigenous peoples. He has compiled a narrative of the Scioto Hopewell spanning three huge volumes that fortunately for me are available online in pdf form. These three volumes total over 3,200 pages of material and unfortunately for this article, I only had time to skim-read each. The works are:
Being Hopewell: Ritual Drama and Personhood in Cross-Cultural Perspective [31] This is how the ethnographic data informs the archeological data on Scioto Hopewell views on the afterlife and self.
Gathering Hopewell: Society, Ritual, and Ritual Interaction. Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology [32] The structure and organization of Scioto Hopewell society based on the funerary data.
The Scioto Hopewell and Their Neighbors. Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology [33] Scioto Hopewell as a unique entity compared to other Hopewell societies. Carr uses the term "thick archeology" which I take to mean a fine graining of the data from, a particular region and using it to compare it to another.
Despite just skimming I was able to glean a few points of information which I feel are important. Remember that Carr is talking specifically about the Scioto Hopewell:
Concepts of self and society are very different from Western concepts. They do align themselves well with indigenous thought. [31]
The Hopewell elites were religious and intellectual elites, clan-based with specialized and decentralized shamanic authority This is best explained by two quotes from Carr (I have broken the text into lists for clarity):
"The rich social and spiritual connections that integrated and motivated Scioto Hopewell people and that provided the means for their group efforts and material accomplishments can be summarized abstractly in the form of fundamental organizational principles or themes. These themes are:
many kinds of social units that constituted many dimensions of organization and alternative ways for integrating and regulating people,
usually many social units of each kind,
complementarity of social units of a kind (e.g., clans of different names) in their roles and arenas of action,
rough equality of social units of a kind in their social prestige, wealth, and access to critical resources of life
crosscutting memberships among social units of the same and different kinds,
recruitment to positions of importance from many social units of a kind,
segregation rather than centralization of social roles,
opportunism in the definition of roles and their forms of action rather than rigid institutionalizing of these,
limitation of most positions of importance in their geographic domains of power." [31]
"...the Scioto Hopewell case is then reexamined using a wide range of kinds of archaeological evidence and context-sensitive inference:
settlement and mortuary evidence of Scioto Hopewell social units and roles indicating their decentralized, complementary, interdependent, crosscutting, and spatially interspersed nature
the location and social context of fancy ceremonial deposits within charnel houses used by multiple, allied communities and aligned with historic metaphors of familial cooperation, intermingling of the souls of the dead from multiple communities, and blending of materials from different groups to unify them
artifactual evidence of the social units (integrating sodalities and clans) who created many of the deposits
skeletal evidence for a lack of interpersonal violence and little if any trophy taking; the scarcity and ambiguity of artworks that might depict human war trophies
the scarcity of elite artifacts that unambiguously were implements of war or symbolized implements of war
the spatial separation of communities from one another
the stability of population levels from the Early through Middle Woodland periods as indicated by burial mound distributions
and the lack of paleoethnobotanical evidence for subsistence stress.
Little hard archaeological evidence is found in support of the common idea that Scioto Hopewell's life was intensely competitive and that its ceremonial flamboyance was primarily a means of social competition among individuals and groups attempting to acquire social power. Much and diverse archaeological evidence points, instead, to cooperative ritual celebrations among closely knit social units" [31]
A very expanded concept of agency that includes important animal species and inanimate objects including multiple agencies (soul-like essences) that survive after human death. [31]
Animal agency and animal power are behind the clan structure of many indigenous North American groups. Although clans are religious, social, and political units within and between groups, the basic idea of animal agency and power underlies it all. Hopewell society is believed to be clan-based. This is because of both animal parts and animal effigies and pipes associated with various burials.
Copper Hands [34]
Copper Raptor [35]
Frog Effigy Pipe [36]
Hopewell funeral rites can be seen as the manipulation of soul-like essences after death. These include one or more sky souls and numerous body souls. Sky souls journeyed up to the Milky Way to the land of the dead. Body souls stayed with the body but could often leave and cause trouble as ghosts. Body souls could also be destroyed. Hopewell charnel houses had extremely hot fires that could literally incinerate a human body in a matter of minutes. This destroyed the body soul and sent the sky soul upward to the heavens. Alternately some were buried, their bodies arranged in special positions like birds in flight and certain objects placed around the body to somehow contain or control the body soul. Sometimes bones of multiple individuals were intermingled. It is believed that this represented the joining together of diverse communities as they then were responsible for each other's ancestors. In one case a large arc of human ash was laid out with other objects to form a sculptural piece and then buried.
A decentralized power sharing with no evidence of coercion in the building of earthworks. [32]
Again, as explained in the quotes above,
A relative period of peace lasting almost 400 years. [32]
Frankly, this all sounds too Rousseau's "Nobel Savage" to be true. This also could be cynical me living in a hyper-violent America where three whole days of "Peace and Love" is considered a major cultural phenomenon and every week brings news of a new mass shooting. There are no stockades around settlements and earthworks don't seem to be built for defensive purposes but for ritual and spectacle. Some were called forts by settlers but this was a mistake. There are no burials found of individuals who have died in battle and these are found both before and after this period. Maybe the war dead were cremated but this suggests that the elites didn't value it. There are no depictions of warfare in their artwork, the detached copper hands and feet and headless mica bodies are perhaps objects of body-soul magic rather than representations of violence. There have been found so-called "trophy skulls" in burials and skeletons missing heads but these could also be ritual objects taken from the already deceased and such finds are rare. This is nothing like southwestern North America with mural depictions of decapitations and evidence of ritual cannibalism. [37] Whatever the case, if a Pax Hopewellian did exist, some understanding of how it was accomplished would be important information for modern society.
A stable population. [31]
I feel that this may be an important data point as the narratives about the cultural florescences of ancient peoples are always framed around rising or falling populations so a steady-state population seems unique. I believe Carr is talking specifically about the Scioto Hopewell.
A very non-western concept of exchange, value, and accumulation of wealth, again in alignment with indigenous beliefs. [33]
The Scioto Hopewell were collectors of various rare raw materials that they usually manufactured into objects. These survive today in different locations as artifacts These were gathered from great distances. We know this through breakthroughs in materials technology, we can find the origins of these materials although sometimes the provenance of where the artifacts were found has been lost. The question is how they obtained these objects and what exactly were the reasons for obtaining them. Knowledge of material sources has now made given some answers which are unique for each material. Obsidian found in Ohio came from two sources in and near what is currently Yellowstone National Park. I remember Obsidian Mountain as a kid at Yellowstone. If one gets walking directions from Chillicothe to Yellowstone in Google Maps, the resulting path requires 29 days of walking. This is constant but at 8 hours a day, this is three months. A major trek but still possible. North America was not an unknown wilderness to Native Americans like it was to Europeans. Local regions were intimately known. Major trails crossed the continent including travel on foot and by canoe. Long-distance travel was possible as a stitched-together mosaic of memory; stories and songs, places both remembered and marked. Maps did exist but without proper materials they were rare. Some of what today is called "rock art" might have represented a map. The cognitive skill of being able to abstract and transform a view must have existed, it is necessary to be able to build large geometric earthworks. [38] The current thinking is that the materials for the artifacts buried with these peoples were obtained by them through pilgrimages or quests, not secondary trade. Carr notes that there were Hopewell people near Kansas City, yet meteorite stones found in Ohio and sourced to Kansas have not been found among the Kansas Hopewell. It was once thought that Hopewell culture started in Illinois with the so-called Havana Hopewell spreading to Ohio. DNA evidence is showing just the opposite. [39] So the movement of people and ideas was from east to west and possibly northwest. Flint and pipestone seem to have come from multiple local sources with rare finds from long-distance ones. [40] Shark's teeth and conch shell cups suggest a different type of exchange with the south and southeast with finished artifacts arriving as gifts. The "black drink" is made with yapon holly (Ilex vomitoria) a plant that grows on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and is commonly drank from conch shell cups. [41] A large staff sheathed with copper depicting a mushroom suggests they may have added more to this drink.
Mushroom staff (wood sheaved with copper) [42]
A great deal of heterogeneity between different Hopewell cultures as to how the general features of what constitutes being Hopewell are applied. [33]
Carr and associates show how different cultures that were within the trading region of the Scioto Hopewell often differed even though they too were considered a Hopewell culture. For instance, sex ratios of burials, change from north to south, with the northern cultures being mainly male while the southern cultures are mainly female with Scioto being very egalitarian. Also of note were different burial practices in Indiana and Illinois, elites were buried in mounds within the river bottom lands while others are buried in mounds built along the ridges. [43] [44] So what does it mean to be Hopewell? There is a commonality of pottery, animal effigy smoking pipes, and pan pipes [45] Cultursl ideas flowed along all the great rivers. It is an open question just how much Mesoamerica influenced the North. In later Mississippian years, Spiro traded East-West with the pueblos in New Mexico and all the way to the Gulf of California. [46] It is believed that Mesoamerican culture affected the Pueblos but there is no direct evidence of contact with the Hopewell. [9]
So what happened to Hopewell culture? Carr mentions that they both started and ended abruptly. Some have mentioned that the population in Ohio dropped after the culture ended. There is no evidence of any environmental problems like in later times. There is a theory of a comet airburst event over southwestern Ohio, a possible reason for the collapse. [47] This has been challenged as it was pointed out that the Chinese were keeping accurate records of comets at this time and there was no mention by them of any comet at this time [48] The authors have since walked back on the comet theory but still maintain that it was an airburst. [49] Perhaps Hopewell culture was an idea that simply ran its course, people stopped believing it and went on. Mound cultures continued to flourish in the south and later groups buried their dead in the Ohio mounds. There is evidence that the Mississippian Fort Ancient culture maintained and used some of the Hopewell mounds, just like the Hopewell used and maintained the older Adena ones. [50]
This has been a difficult article to write. I think I have a good idea of what is going on then something else pulls me onto another tangent. This is just an introduction, description of the great earthworks and mounds and the history of their evacuation and the struggle to preserve them will follow in part 2.
Miamisburg Mound, Miamisburg, Ohio. Author Photograph October 2022
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Copper Hands, Hopewell Culture National Historic Park, Chillicothe, Ohio. Author Photograph, October 2022
Copper Raptor, Hopewell Culture National Historic Park, Chillicothe, Ohio. Author Photograph, October 2022
Frog Effigy Pipe, Hopewell Culture National Historic Park, Chillicothe, Ohio. Author Photograph, October 2022
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